The literature review has been revised

Additional articles have been added to the References post. The postings on perception, working memory, and semantic memory have been updated to further explain the results of the research articles presented in the list of References.

How does semantic memory influence perceptual processes?

After reviewing current research on semantic memory and perception, the interrelationship of these cognitive processes are evident. The Dewhurst and Robinson study showed that older children use their semantic memories to process words based on meaning, while young children tend to process words based on sound, as in rhyming. Numerous cognitive studies have shown that explicit recall and recognition of recently studied words, objects, or other materials is greatly affected by how those materials are initially encoded. The Wolfe, Butcher, Lee, and Hyle study on priming shows that explicit top down guidance is less effective than guidance provided by a picture of a stimulus (implicit priming).

Two main points can be gathered from the literature review on semantic memory and perception:

1) semantic memory influences the interpretation of new information, especially in older children, and
2) how well new information is encoded may be influenced by the way existing information was encoded (top down guidance versus implicit visual stimulus).

Therefore, visual and verbal guidance should be given to younger children as they develop their basic semantic memories. If this is followed, then older children will already have the information encoded from which to build subordinate knowledge. This will help to lay a more solid foundation for the formation of super-ordinate knowledge bases.

How does working memory influence perceptual processes?

It is generally thought that working memory peaks at young adulthood. However, a study by Vladimir Sloutsky and Anna Fisher counters this belief. The researchers counter that very young children tend to similarity-based induction when examining pictures, whereas adults use category-based induction (or top-down processing using feature comparison model, or prototype approach). When the adults used category information, they would filter out unrelated information and have more trouble recalling specifics. On the other hand, the children who used similarity-based induction encoded specific items about each picture that helped them remember it later. These findings tie back to the Wolfe, Butcher, Lee, and Hyle study on priming, which found that implicit priming targeted to young children is just as effective as top down guidance targeted to older children or adults.

The study by Tremblay, Parmentier, Geraud, Nicholls, & Jones tested whether the classical modality effect -- that is, the stronger recency effect for auditory items relative to visual items -- can be extended to the spatial domain. The results demonstrated a modality effect -- greater recency in the auditory than in the visual modality -- in the recall of verbal items but not of spatial items. The results also suggested that the recency effect is stronger in the auditory modality than in the visual modality.

The two main points I draw from the research on working memory and perception are as follows:

1) Children have a visual strength in their working memory; adults tend to filter out details.
2) People have better recall for recent auditory stimulus. The serial order of visual stimuli did not seem to matter as much.

How could these theories be used in the library media world?

There are many ways that the library media center aids students in their perceptual processes. These ways can range from quiet reading, to movies, to group research activities, to storytelling. I’d like to focus on storytelling and examine how these theories on could be used in my future career as a library media specialist to develop and promote storytelling in schools.

Storytelling can be used to exercise listening skills, to improve language skills (comprehension and vocabulary), to develop oral speaking skills, and to enhance problem-solving skills. The storyteller Mary Kinsella's web site has an exhausive list of reasons to include storytelling in schools. Many cognitive processes are utilized by the teller and the listener: perception, working memory, semantic memory, problem solving, creativity, schemas -- just to name a few. The most basic influences in the success of storytelling, however, are perception, working memory, and semantic memory. A child must be able to perceive the story, store the facts in working memory, and relate the story progress back to information already in semantic memory. Storytelling is much like reading, but there are more senses involved, especially the auditory sense. Facial expressions and gestures are used by storytellers, and occasionally props are used, bringing a visual aspect to the storytelling experience.

The National Council of Teachers of English has a position statement on storytelling. The council encourages teachers to tell stories and to teach students the art of storytelling.

Teachers who tell personal stories or go through the process of learning to tell folk or literary tales make the most credible models. Visiting storytellers or professional tellers on audiotapes or videotapes offer students a variety of styles. Often a community historian or folklorist has a repertoire of local tales. Older students both learn and teach when they take their tales to younger audiences or community agencies.

Today's school library media specialist works with both students and teachers to develop, promote, and implement a program that will help prepare students to be effective users of ideas and information. And storytelling is unsurpassed as a tool for learning about ourselves, about the ever-increasing information available to us, and about the thoughts and feelings of others.

The theories regarding perception, working memory, and semantic memory help to explain common storytelling styles. The theory that younger children tend to process words based on sounds helps to explain why storytelling to younger children is more successful when it includes rhymes, songs, and music. The studies of implicit priming help explain why storytellers tend to break the ice, or "prime," their audience by using some kind of visual stimulus. For example, if the Indian story of Ganesha, the elephant god, was being told, a stuffed elephant could be shown and discussed with the audience prior to the story. The strength of the recency effect in the auditory modality works well with traditional story stuctures that have some verse, song, or moral told at the end to leave an impression on the audience.

Research Project

Research Design

The purpose of this research project is to experiment with the storytelling format in order to discover which formats are most effective in terms of how well the story is received and understood. Story comprehension will be measured with a standard reading comprehension test. It may be possible to have the students complete a survey following the experiment in order to collect qualititive data regarding the effectiveness of their storytelling experiences. And if a survey is utilized, it may be more effective to use an oral survey versus a written survey for the younger student groups.

The first study will consist of two groups of students of the same grade, preferably a middle grade such as 4-6. One group will will come from a class that has been studying the setting for the story. For example, the story is an Indian folk tale, and the class has been studying the country of India. The second group will just have the story with no prior context provided in school. The purpose of this study is to examine recent semantic memory influences.

The second study will involve the same two groups, the the story will be unfamiliar to both groups. One group will be given a visual stimulus related to story then told the story. The second group will be told the story then shown a visual stimulus. The purpose of this study is to examine serial effects in working memory.

Research Expectations

It is expected that the student group studying the story setting in the classroom will have a better comprehension and application of the story. In the second study, better scores should be obtained from the group that was visually primed before the story.

Educational Implications

I think the information gathered will be useful in designing a storytelling program in an educational setting. The results will provide feedback on how to effectively weave a visual stimulus into the storytelling experience. The results may help emphasize the need to collaborate with teachers to choose stories that complement what the students are currently learning in class.

Limitations and Weaknesses

A story choice may or may not appeal to certain students, and this may influence the their attention and subsequent performance on a reading comprehension test. Also, it is difficult to factor out any prior knowledge of the story setting in the control group. For example, one child may happen to already know something about India. The study may have to be repeated several times in order to factor out these influences.

Future Research

In order to isolate variables that influence a student's perception of a story, this experimental design is very simple. However, there are countless ways to adapt storytelling to the audience and collect the results for analysis. Visual stimuli in the form of props such as picture books and puppets can be utilized. Auditory stimuli such as music, singing, and rhyming can also be incorporated. Digital storytelling via web sites, movies, and slide shows is gaining popularity in schools. And since many young adults are spending more library time in chat rooms, why not take storytelling to the chat rooms? An outside storyteller or the students themselves could tell stories interactively and virtually during the students' designated library time.